Can Buddhism offer philosophical perspectives and practical approaches that support the green transition? Are there aspects of Buddhism that hinder such efforts? What tensions arise when combining Buddhism and climate activism?
This article is an overview of my doctoral research project on these questions at the University of Helsinki, Finland, including conceptual and empirical work. The empirical datasets feature in-depth interviews with climate activists practicing Buddhism, including thirteen participants from the U.S., U.K., Canada, and Australia, and twelve participants from Finland. I am established as a scientist in the field of biology, although I have a history (master’s degree) also in Asian studies.
This second line of research arose through a cascade of events following a chance encounter with Buddhist studies expert Mitra Härkönen, PhD. The connection led to joint research projects and for me to conceptualize this project, seeking to combine my longstanding personal interest in Buddhism and the climate crisis. My interest in Buddhism originated in my teens through a passion for East Asian martial arts and has included spending a period in 2021–2023 in Buddhist monasteries in Europe and Asia, including full monastic ordination in Thailand for a short while.
I became concerned about the climate crisis through news exposure and reading on deep ecology in the mid-2000s. A major theme in my own life has been seeking to reconcile these two interests with each other as well as with a secular and scientific worldview. Therefore, this sideline research has been a personal passion project, which I consider to also have value for Buddhists, climate activists, and society at large.
The Origins of Buddhism and Its Historical Approach to the Environment
Buddhism emerged in what is now northeastern India about 2,500 years ago. Initially, it was one of many ascetic movements (Sanskrit: śramaṇa) seeking liberation from the cycle of birth and death (saṃsāra). The conversion of Emperor Aśoka (c. 304–232 BCE) facilitated the spread of Buddhism across the Indian subcontinent, and later it expanded throughout much of Asia.
The founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha ("the enlightened one"), was according to hagiographic accounts the son of a ruler from the military aristocracy. After awakening to the inevitability of aging, illness, and death, he first renounced his life of luxury and later rejected the extreme asceticism practiced by some groups. Neither approach, he realized, provided a deep solution to human suffering (dukkha).
Instead, he discovered that liberation could be achieved by training the mind rather than focusing on physical suffering or pleasure. His teachings combined philosophical ideas about the impermanence of all things, ethical principles that emphasized letting go of attachment and showing kindness to all living beings, and meditative practices that cultivated mindfulness and equanimity. This approach required physical conditions that were neither excessively pleasurable nor painful. He called this balanced approach the Middle Way.
The Buddha established a monastic order for monks and later for nuns. These ordained practitioners sought enlightenment by following the path he outlined. Laypeople supported the monastic community and, in return, received good karma and life guidance, which were believed to lead to success in this life and a favorable rebirth.
During the Buddha’s time, modern environmental issues and concepts were unknown, and historical Buddhism does not directly address them. The monastic lifestyle, characterized by celibacy and modest living, appears environmentally sustainable by today’s standards. However, lay Buddhists, who focused on accumulating and donating wealth, did not necessarily live sustainably. The Buddhist ethics of kindness and the avoidance of negative karma from killing have led, to varying degrees, to the protection of animals and, in East Asia, to vegetarianism. However, Buddhism has traditionally emphasized cultivating compassion internally rather than focusing on external actions, and this principle has not always been applied consistently in practice. For instance, a common practice is communal chanting featuring well wishing to sentient beings, but this may not be accompanied by practical action to help those suffering. Moreover, buying animals to release them has become a common way to make merit but may be accompanied by diets and lifestyles exploiting animals and may also itself involve commodification and animal exploitation.
In Buddhist cosmology, humans are just one category of sentient beings, alongside animals, hell-beings, gods, and ghosts. Beings are reborn into different realms according to their accumulated karma. Unlike the Abrahamic religions, Buddhism does not position humans as rulers of creation but rather alongside all beings. However, being born human is considered particularly fortunate because human life is neither as pleasure-filled as that of the gods nor as suffering-laden as that of lower realms. This balance provides the best conditions for seeking enlightenment. In this sense, Buddhism remains anthropocentric, and traditional teachings do not acknowledge the significance of the non-sentient environment. However, many branches of Buddhism have incorporated animist elements, leading to reverence for natural formations and a blurring of distinctions between living and non-living entities.
The Rise of Buddhism in the West and Its Connection to the Environmental Movement
By the early 20th century, Western knowledge of Buddhism had grown through exploration, colonialism, missionary work, early anthropology and linguistics, and theosophy. However, interest remained largely intellectual and artistic. Practical engagement with Buddhism emerged in the counterculture of the 1960s, which also saw the birth of the modern environmental movement.
Western Buddhism developed characteristics such as interpreting Buddhism as compatible with Western science and philosophy, emphasizing meditation and personal study among lay practitioners, and adopting an eclectic, individualized approach that incorporated elements from various (often New Age) traditions.
Both Western Buddhism and the environmental movement have been critical of materialistic consumer culture. In Buddhism, consumerism is seen as an ineffective way to address human suffering. In the environmental movement, it is considered a driving force behind anthropocentric (human-caused) environmental degradation, biodiversity loss, and resource depletion—later also global warming. Early environmentalists often blamed the Abrahamic religions for fostering an anthropocentric worldview that encouraged exploitation of nature. By contrast, they idealized Asian religious traditions, including Buddhism, as being less materialistic and more ecologically harmonious.
Buddhism has always had a dual stance toward societal engagement. On the one hand, traditional teachings emphasize suffering as inherent to saṃsāra, the importance of renunciation of attachment, and the pursuit of liberation from saṃsāra. Monastics, in particular, withdraw from most social and political activities. In Western Buddhism, this is reflected in a focus on personal study and meditation, which has also been linked to the contemporary self-help and wellbeing industries. On the other hand, Buddhist ethics of kindness and compassion often lead Buddhists to respond to suffering with compassion. Throughout history, Buddhists have addressed individual and societal issues in various ways. The modern movement using the term “engaged Buddhism” emerged in the 1960s in connection with the peace movement and counterculture. Engaged Buddhists emphasize aspects of Buddhist teachings that encourage social action, including environmental issues. However, engaged Buddhism remains a marginal part of Western Buddhism, with most practitioners focusing on personal practice and study.
Despite being a minority, engaged Buddhists concerned with environmental issues have been highly influential in the Western environmental movement. Notable figures include Joanna Macy, who has linked Buddhism to ecological systems thinking and developed methods for processing environmental emotions, and Pulitzer Prize winning poet Gary Snyder, a proponent of bioregionalism. Both are considered pioneers of “deep ecology”. Buddhist-inspired ideas have influenced contemporary environmentalism by challenging anthropocentric worldviews, critiquing the unsustainability of current socio-economic models, and proposing alternatives. These alternatives emphasize the benefits of environmentally sustainable, materially simple, meditative, and compassionate living—not only for the planet but also for individual and collective well-being. Such ideas resonate with movements like voluntary simplicity, downshifting, and lifestyle minimalism.
Western Buddhism and Climate Activism
Scientific reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on the alarming progression of climate change and the inadequacy of political responses led to widespread climate activism in the 2010s. Fridays for Future and Extinction Rebellion (XR) emerged in 2018, using acts of civil disobedience, such as roadblocks, to raise awareness among policymakers and citizens. This activism peaked in September 2019, when millions participated in global climate protests. While the COVID-19 pandemic dampened the movement’s momentum, activism has continued.
A small number of Western Buddhist practitioners have also engaged in climate activism. In addition, general awareness of climate issues has grown among Buddhists, as in other religious traditions. Influential Buddhist leaders, such as the 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, and Vietnamese Buddhist monk and peace activist Thích Nhất Hạnh (1926–2022), have emphasized the urgency of addressing the climate crisis as a defining challenge for humanity.
In my research, I have found that Western Buddhist climate activists engage in negotiations similar to those within engaged Buddhism and the broader climate movement.
Becoming aware of climate change often brings difficult emotions such as anxiety, anger, grief, and guilt. It can also create a sense of distance from loved ones and members of society who are perceived as indifferent.
Buddhist teachings on impermanence and the suffering inherent in saṃsāra have helped my research participants accept the worsening climate crisis. Meditation practices, in turn, have helped many recognize, accept, and calm these difficult emotions.
However, they have struggled to understand the indifference of other Buddhists. This has led to criticism of certain Buddhist teachings and practices that are seen as too passive, as well as calls for reform. Many of my study participants reported Buddhist communities to have a culture of avoiding difficult topics and the expression of difficult emotions. They found engaged Buddhist groups, particularly those including other climate activists, to provide invaluable socioemotional support which was also critical for their continued commitment to Buddhism.
Some also wish to incorporate stronger environmental elements into Buddhism. These include animist interpretations that give greater value to the environment than traditional teachings, as well as meditative and embodied practices in nature that strengthen one's connection to the natural world.
My research participants also had mixed feelings about the climate movement. They criticized its focus on external action and its aggressiveness, emphasizing compassion as a motivation and mindset that should be nurtured in activism.
Some participants felt that their climate activism was driven by unsustainable motives, such as trying to process difficult emotions. They saw Buddhist practice as a way to develop more enduring motivations, such as compassion. Others, however, felt that activism itself helped them deal constructively with negative emotions about the climate, which could sometimes intensify during meditation.
Many also admired climate activists for their dedication. Extinction Rebellion, with its commitment to nonviolence, was seen as highly compatible with Buddhist values and worldview.
However, some felt that climate activism can be exhausting and does not provide a sufficient ideological solution to today’s sustainability crisis or the spiritual void many experience. They believed that deeper solutions, such as those found in Buddhism, are needed to address the root causes of these problems.
Conclusion
I hope this text challenges and expands the reader’s understanding of the relation of Buddhism to current environmental issues. The topic is complex, and Buddhism does not offer ready-made or perfect solutions to the climate crisis.
Instead, Buddhism’s traditional relationship with the environment has had contradictory impacts when viewed through the lens of modern concerns. Similarly, Buddhists who are worried about the climate crisis experience tensions when trying to reconcile their Buddhist practice with climate activism. Buddhist communities could benefit from providing a space for members to discuss difficult issues and experiences, including those related to the climate crisis, to foster the wellbeing of members.
However, like many other traditions, Buddhism can serve as inspiration for imagining alternative, more sustainable ways of thinking and living. Buddhism has already played a significant role in the environmental movement, suggesting that it has the potential to continue contributing in the future.
About the Author
The author is a Collegium Researcher (PhD, Adjunct Professor) and group leader (https://sites.utu.fi/meg/) in the field of biosciences at the University of Turku, Finland, and is currently completing a second doctoral dissertation in environmental humanism at the University of Helsinki. This research focuses on the negotiations of Western Buddhist climate activists.
The author has also studied Buddhism in Finland, including co-editing the anthology Buddhalaisuus Suomessa (Buddhism in Finland) with Mitra Härkönen, PhD, published by the Finnish Oriental Society in 2023.
Related recent publications
Cairns, Johannes. (2024). ’Phases of the Buddhist approach to the environment,’ Journal of Buddhist Ethics: 31. Accessible: https://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/2024/02/12/5317/
Cairns, Johannes and Pihkala, Panu. (2024). ’How Western Buddhist climate activists negotiate climate emotions,’ Frontiers in Psychology 15:1487258. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1487258
Cairns, Johannes, Pihkala, Panu, and Grönlund, Henrietta. (2024). ‘How Western Buddhists combine Buddhism and climate activism’, Contemporary Buddhism 24:70–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/14639947.2024.2374704
Härkönen, Mitra and & Cairns, J. (2025). Engaged Buddhism in Finland: Too cautious to take action. Journal of Buddhist Ethics 32:27–72. https://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/2025/02/01/engaged-buddhism-in-finland/
One Reply to “Buddhism and the Climate Crisis”
Wonderfully informative article, beautifully written and organized. I am especially moved by the recommendation that “Buddhist communities could benefit from providing a space for members to discuss difficult issues and experiences, including those related to the climate crisis, to foster the wellbeing of members.”